This study proposes two novel methods for tracking extended target with elliptical shape under non-Gaussian noise conditions. To achieve this, an explicit nonlinear measurement equation is formulated by incorporating a multiplicative noise term that connects the target's kinematic and shape parameters with the measurements. This measurement equation is employed to derive a closed-form solution for the Student's t extended Kalman filter based on multiplicative noise model (St-EKF-MNM) with recursive measurement updates. To further optimize the target tracking performance, the Hessian matrix was used to deal with the nonlinearity in the measurement equation, further derive the Student's t second-order extended Kalman filter based on multiplicative noise model (St-SOEKF-MNM). The effectiveness and robustness of the proposed methods are demonstrated with simulation.
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Potluri S S Swetha and Vasili B V Nagarjuna 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 035024
The development of new families of distributions is crucial for addressing the increasing demand for flexible models capable of managing complicated datasets. This paper introduces a new three-parameter family of distributions named the Kumaraswamy Modified Kies-G family, which accommodates complex and skewed data. The new model offers greater flexibility, particularly in its tail behaviour, making it suitable for accurately fitting skewed datasets. We examine the statistical properties of the proposed model and an extension of the exponential distribution is added, to showcase its versatility. Through the simulation, performance of the parameter estimates is evaluated. The real data applications reveal that proposed model performs better than its competing four-parameter models based on various goodness-of-fit and adequacy measures.
Yanxia Hu and Shaoru Liu 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 035233
In this paper, a class of generalized Liénard equations with high power damping, which can describe the dynamic behavior of many physical phenomena, is considered. The property of integrating factors of the equations is investigated, and the corresponding first integral can be derived. Specially, the explicit expressions of integrating factors of several families of the equations with n = 2 are obtained. The linearizable family of the equations via the certain non-local transformation is given, and an explicit expression that connects integrating factors of the linearizable equations and that of linear equations is provided. Finally, the applications to a class of (2+1)-dimensional KP-Burgers type equation are proposed, and the linearization condition of traveling wave reduction of the equation is obtained, therefore, the corresponding wave solutions of the original partial differential equation can be deduced. Furthermore, the three-dimensional images of the wave solutions are provided for a better understanding of the behavior of the solutions.
Borwen You et al 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 035551
Integrated sensing platforms, which possess active layers of local electric-field oscillation in the terahertz (THz) frequency, can sensitively detect analytes via electromagnetic (EM) wave guidance, resonance, and spatial confinement in the system of THz time-domain spectroscopy. A Bragg grating structure of periodically perforated metal slits (PPMSs) is presented here as an active layer to generate the local electric-field oscillation of metal-cavity EM wave resonance that is coupled from 0.1–1 THz metal surface waves along the wavelength-scaled segments of metal slabs. The cavity modal confinement property, which is characterized from device transmittance or loss spectra, leads to the distribution of the metal-cavity wave resonance over a 35-pitch length and a 0.1–0.2 mm metal thickness of PPMSs. These two distribution dimensions of metal-cavity wave resonance represent longitudinal and transverse confinement performances, respectively. The PPMS-THz waves specified by 2D spatial confinement can realize the functional integration of a dielectric superstrate component and a sample adsorbing layer to adjust the dispersion responsivity and concentration of analytes, respectively. A refractive-index sensing application of glucose is presented by this integrated scheme for a molecular density range of 0–24 μg mm−2 and a resolution density of 1.6 μg mm−2. The PPMS-based THz integrated sensing platform facilitates the developments of specific test papers and relevant molecular surface modification to target molecules.
Rezan Bakır et al 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 035114
In modern energy research, minimizing fuel usage and harmful gas emissions are critical priorities. The application of advanced deep learning (DL) models to predict thermohydraulic characteristics of an innovative plate heat exchanger (IPHE) is investigated in this study. Building upon our prior work utilizing machine learning (ML) models, the focus is placed on predicting the Nusselt Number (Nu), friction factor (f), and performance (P) within a Reynolds number range of 500 to 5000. Advanced DL architectures-GRU, LSTM, and CNN-are utilized, resulting in substantial improvements in prediction accuracy and robustness. The LSTM model demonstrates superior performance, achieving R2 scores of 0.9986, 0.9985, and 0.9968 for Nu, f, and P, respectively, significantly surpassing prior ML model results of 0.98, 0.979, and 0.9628. The findings highlight the capacity of DL models to capture complex, nonlinear relationships in thermohydraulic data, offering an enhanced approach to optimizing plate heat exchanger (PHE) performance. This work contributes to energy-efficient technological advancements, supporting global efforts to reduce environmental impacts while addressing rising energy demands.
XueYi Wang et al 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 032003
Despite their many advantages, the widespread application of magnesium (Mg) alloys is hindered by their high corrosion rates and poor ductility and formability. One effective method for enhancing both the corrosion resistance and mechanical properties, such as ductility, of Mg alloys is through alloying with Rare Earth (RE) elements. These elements have recently garnered significant attention due to their beneficial properties, including an electrode potential similar to that of Mg and their capacity to refine grain size, which contributes to reduced corrosion rates and enhanced alloy strength. This paper explores the common forms of Mg corrosion and elucidates the mechanisms by which RE elements improve corrosion resistance and mechanical behavior in Mg-RE alloys. It also provides a detailed analysis of how each RE element alters the corrosion behavior of Mg-based alloys. By integrating RE elements, it is possible to control corrosion and improve mechanical properties through mechanisms like solid solution strengthening, grain refinement, and the formation and distribution of secondary phases.
Rohit Rajendra Jadhao et al 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 032002
Heat transfer enhancement has become an important research area to improve the efficiency of thermal systems. This chronological review focuses on approaches for heat transfer enhancement by incorporating inputs into strategies. An in-depth review has been carried out with inserts such as twisted tapes, turbulators, vortex generators, dimple surfaces and porous materials to improve heat transfer in a variety of applications like heat exchangers, renewable energy devices, automotive systems and electronic cooling systems. A comprehensive literature review across several decades was conducted to examine the progress in improving heat transfer efficiency. Various numerical, analytical and experimental methods used in the study were examined to correct the processes and effects of different insert designs. The study includes various insert geometries, structures and materials providing a detailed analysis of the state-of-the-art in heat transfer enhancement. The review highlights key findings from studies of various inputs and their effects on heat transfer enhancement. It provides insight into efficiency metrics such as the Nusselt number, coefficient of heat transfer and pressure drop associated with each insertion method. In addition, the chronological presentation allows trends and improvements to be identified in insert-based heat transfer enhancement over the years. The results in various applications show the effectiveness of certain insert geometries and configurations in improving heat transfer performance. This chronological analysis provides a comprehensive overview of the progress in heat transfer enhancement through the use of different approaches. Knowledge gathered from various studies demonstrates the potential of insert-based methods to significantly improve the thermal conductivity of various thermal systems. Insights gained from this study can guide future research efforts, contributing to efficient and sustainable heat transfer technologies that have been developed. The conclusion highlights the importance of continued research in this area to address the growing challenges of thermal management and energy efficiency.
Hadi Rasuli and Reza Rasuli 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 032001
Two-dimensional (2D) Boron Carbon Nitride (BCN) has recently gained significant attention as a convoluted ternary system owing to its remarkable capability to exhibit a wide range of finely tunable physical, chemical, optical, and electrical properties. In this review, we discuss a variety of stable structure forms of BCN nanosheets. In addition, this review provides recent approaches for synthesizing BCN nanostructures, and properties of BCN derivatives. BCN is a promising material for sustainable energy and energy storage devices. Since BCN application is a challenge in the field of energy, we present potential applications of BCN in the field of energy including supercapacitors and batteries, wastewater treatment, electrochemical sensing, and gas adsorption.
Arslan Mehmood et al 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 012001
The widespread application of synthetic dyes across industries poses significant environmental problems, particularly concerning with degradation of water quality. Concerning the possible solutions, copper oxide (CuO) considered as a feasible candidate. CuO a p-type heterogeneous semiconductor with a bandgap of 1.2–2.71 eV, It is a reasonable choice and widely studied photocatalyst for addressing such challenges. The functionality of CuO deteriorated, when the wavelength exceeded the UV–visible region. In this manner difficulties associated with reproducibility and reusability, as well as rapid electron–hole recombination, prevent the widespread application of this technology. In an attempt to eliminate this defect, researchers have been investigating strategies to activate CuO under visible light, with one promising approach being carbon nanomaterials such as graphene to form carbon-CuO composites. The unique properties of graphene, i.e., its higher surface area and excellent electron mobility, make it a remarkable candidate for the enhancement of CuO photoactivity. This study highlighted the recent progress in the synthesis of graphene-based CuO photocatalysts, with the main characteristic of extending the light absorption capacity of CuO into the visible spectrum. It reveals achievements in material innovations and applications, with a focus on photocatalytic. It has been observed from the documented studies, catalysis is considered as next generation emerging field for the researcher.
Md Jakir Hossen et al 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 012005
Within a decade, the power congversion efficiency (PCEs) of metal-halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) moves upward from 3.9% to 25.7%, making them competitive with current state-of-the-art silicon-based counterparts. This steepest growth of the PCEs suggests that the commercialization of this technology might be easing the energy transition from fossil fuel to renewable energy. However, a wide range of factors restrict the commercial viability of PSCs like their toxicity and instability. A crucial and difficult task in the field of PSCs is the replacement of Pb-based perovskite with non-toxic and eco-friendly material while maintaining high-performance with improved stability. Cs2AgBiBr6 halide double perovskites (HDP) material seems to be very promising in this regard. This article reviews the recent progress in Cs2AgBiBr6 double PSC devices, especially fabrication techniques including the advancement of its efficiency and stability. Here, the evolution of Cs2AgBiBr6 towards the application and fabrication of PSCs has also been discussed. This study also analyzed the impact of numerous environmental stresses, such as mechanical, thermal, and optical stresses including the potential prospects in the case of Pb-free PSCs.
Gong et al
This study established a dynamic analysis model for laminated annular plates coupled with periodically distributed dynamic vibration absorbers (DVAs). Based on the first-order shear deformation theory (FSDT), the kinetic energy, strain energy, external work, and boundary spring potential energy of the structure were derived using the energy method and penalty function approach, and the Lagrangian energy functional of the structure was constructed. According to the model simplification principle, the DVAs were simplified into basic elements consisting of mass blocks coupled with spring-damper systems. The displacement functions of the structure were described using the Chebyshev-Fourier method (CFM). The Rayleigh-Ritz method and the implicit Newmark method were applied to solve the energy functional for free and forced vibrations, yielding the natural frequencies, vibration responses under external forces, and vibrational energy of the structure. A series of comparative analyses were conducted, comparing the SGM results with published data and finite element method (FEM) results, which verified the validity of the proposed method. Based on this, the effects of material parameters, annular plate dimensions, boundary constraints, and DVA installation parameters on the vibration characteristics of the structure were investigated. The findings demonstrated that the installation of distributed DVAs can effectively suppress the vibration of the structure.
Oliveira et al
In this work, we presented a new theoretical approach based on Mean-Field Theory, employing a hybrid Hamiltonian (spin/charge) in the spin-1/2 antiferromagnetic Ising model on lattices exhibiting geometric frustration. The study was conducted using the mean-field theory derived from Bogoliubov's inequality to obtain a generic expression for the free energy in any frustrated lattice. To validate this theoretical approach, we applied the model to both the pyrochlore and kagome lattices occupied by spin-1/2 described by antiferromagnetic Ising model. The results revealed key features of geometric frustration in the studied structures, consistent with previous results reported in the literature, such as residual entropy, the characteristic behavior of the specific heat, and the emergence of plateaus in the magnetization curves.
Diery
The family of two-dimensional molybdenum-based transition-metal dichalcogenides has recently grown to include Janus and non-Janus structures, which offer unique properties for nanoelectronic and optoelectronic applications. This study took this a step further by introducing the new Hybrid-I MoSSe, which is a combination of Janus and non-Janus MoSSe monolayers. Based on density functional
theory calculations, the Hybrid-I MoSSe monolayer exhibited higher stability than the conventional Janus MoSSe and Hybrid-II MoSSe, as indicated by cohesive energy and phonon dispersion analyses. It exhibited a direct band gap of 1.54 eV, which reduced to 1.44 eV with spin–orbit coupling. Calculation of the optical properties indicated that the Hybrid-I MoSSe monolayer had high absorption and low
reflectivity in the visible spectrum, enhancing its potential for solar cell and photodetector applications. Various methods for band gap modulation, including biaxial strain, external electric fields, layer thickness variation, and heterostructure formation, demonstrated effective control over electronic properties. For example, a shift from direct to indirect band gaps occurred at a tensile stress of 4% and compressive stress of -8%. This transition also occurred in Hybrid-I–non-Janus MoSSe and both Hybrid-I–Janus MoSSe heterostructures. Our results demonstrate that the Hybrid-I MoSSe monolayer combines stability with tunable electronic properties, making it a promising candidate material for the next generation of nanoelectronics and optoelectronics applications.
Finley et al
In view of elucidating the fragmentation patterns of aromatic systems induced by low-energy electron interactions, dissociative electron attachment (DEA) to gas-phase anisole was performed. Anionic fragments resulting from this DEA process were detected by a quadrupole mass spectrometer, and ion yields of those fragments as a function of incident electron energy were rendered. Our study showed the formation of CH3−, HCC−, and OCH3− fragments, suggesting that various dissociation channels proceed out of DEA to anisole. We employed density functional theory to compute thermodynamic threshold energies for each potential dissociation channel. Those theoretical calculations supported the prediction that the CH3− and OCH3− fragments form via mechanisms of single-bond cleavage; the HCC− fragments may form through two-, three-, or four-body dissociation channels that entail hydrogen transfers and the cleavage of multiple aromatic bonds. The experimental resonance energies that form the CH3−, HCC−, and OCH3− fragments were 6.0 eV, 5.8 and 9.7 eV, and 9.8 eV, respectively. Given the classification of anisole as a monosubstituted aromatic species, our results explain generalizable patterns of electron-mediated dissociation in aromatic systems.
Wen et al
Medical electromagnetic tracking technology offers significant benefits in puncture and interventional surgeries by effectively mitigating obstacles. Traditional optimization-based algorithms for pose estimation in electromagnetic localization often converge to local optima and exhibit slow iterative convergence, which limits their accuracy and efficiency. To address these issues, we propose an enhanced pose estimation algorithm that integrates advanced optimization techniques for receiver sensors.The algorithm successfully converged to the global optimal solution in all test cases and no local optimal solution problem occurred in certain volume, which enables rapid real-time tracking of multiple coils simultaneously, outperforming traditional methods. Furthermore, we have developed a novel calibration method for transmission coils that corrects manufacturing-induced errors in size, position, and orientation. These innovations achieved system positional accuracy of 2.64 mm and directional accuracy of 1.33 degrees within a tracking volume of 350$ \times$ 350 $\times$ 350 $\text{mm}^3$.
Borwen You et al 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 035551
Integrated sensing platforms, which possess active layers of local electric-field oscillation in the terahertz (THz) frequency, can sensitively detect analytes via electromagnetic (EM) wave guidance, resonance, and spatial confinement in the system of THz time-domain spectroscopy. A Bragg grating structure of periodically perforated metal slits (PPMSs) is presented here as an active layer to generate the local electric-field oscillation of metal-cavity EM wave resonance that is coupled from 0.1–1 THz metal surface waves along the wavelength-scaled segments of metal slabs. The cavity modal confinement property, which is characterized from device transmittance or loss spectra, leads to the distribution of the metal-cavity wave resonance over a 35-pitch length and a 0.1–0.2 mm metal thickness of PPMSs. These two distribution dimensions of metal-cavity wave resonance represent longitudinal and transverse confinement performances, respectively. The PPMS-THz waves specified by 2D spatial confinement can realize the functional integration of a dielectric superstrate component and a sample adsorbing layer to adjust the dispersion responsivity and concentration of analytes, respectively. A refractive-index sensing application of glucose is presented by this integrated scheme for a molecular density range of 0–24 μg mm−2 and a resolution density of 1.6 μg mm−2. The PPMS-based THz integrated sensing platform facilitates the developments of specific test papers and relevant molecular surface modification to target molecules.
Jacob Finley et al 2025 Phys. Scr.
In view of elucidating the fragmentation patterns of aromatic systems induced by low-energy electron interactions, dissociative electron attachment (DEA) to gas-phase anisole was performed. Anionic fragments resulting from this DEA process were detected by a quadrupole mass spectrometer, and ion yields of those fragments as a function of incident electron energy were rendered. Our study showed the formation of CH3−, HCC−, and OCH3− fragments, suggesting that various dissociation channels proceed out of DEA to anisole. We employed density functional theory to compute thermodynamic threshold energies for each potential dissociation channel. Those theoretical calculations supported the prediction that the CH3− and OCH3− fragments form via mechanisms of single-bond cleavage; the HCC− fragments may form through two-, three-, or four-body dissociation channels that entail hydrogen transfers and the cleavage of multiple aromatic bonds. The experimental resonance energies that form the CH3−, HCC−, and OCH3− fragments were 6.0 eV, 5.8 and 9.7 eV, and 9.8 eV, respectively. Given the classification of anisole as a monosubstituted aromatic species, our results explain generalizable patterns of electron-mediated dissociation in aromatic systems.
Mrinal Kanti Giri and Sudhindu Bikash Mandal 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 035111
We study the quantum walk on the off-diagonal Aubry-André-Harper (AAH) lattice with periodic modulation using a digital quantum computer. We investigate various initial states at the single-particle level, considering different hopping modulation strengths and phase factors. Initiating the quantum walk with a particle at the lattice edge reveals the robustness of the edge state, attributed to the topological nature of the AAH model, and displays the influence of the phase factor on this edge state. On the other hand, when the quantum walk begins with a particle in the lattice bulk, we observe a repulsion of the bulk walker from the edge, especially under strong hopping modulation. Furthermore, we extend our investigation to the quantum walk of two particles with nearest-neighbour (NN) interaction. We show the repulsion effect in the quantum walk when two walkers originate from the edge and bulk of the lattice due to the interaction. Additionally, when two particles are positioned at nearest-neighbor sites with strong hopping modulation, they unexpectedly form a local bound state at very small interaction strength, highlighting the unique interplay between hopping modulation and interaction in our quantum walk setup. We analyze these phenomena by examining physical quantities such as density evolution, two-particle correlation, and participation entropy, and discuss their potential applications in quantum technologies.
Aeriyn D Ahmad et al 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 035535
Our study explores the application of Polyacrylonitrile (PAN), a soluble organic material valued for its thermal stability, UV resistance, high strength, and chemical inertness, in the field of supercontinuum generation (SCG). Specifically, we investigate its use as a saturable absorber (SA) in an erbium-doped fiber laser (EDFL) for ultrafast laser generation. The PAN SA is fabricated by embedding PAN compounds into a Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) host polymer. Integration of the PAN SA into the laser cavity enables stable mode-locking operation, generating a conventional soliton pulse train centred at 1567.0 nm wavelength. Mode-locking is maintained over a pump power range of 87.2 to 254.1 mW at a repetition rate of 1.78 MHz, producing pulses with a duration of 920 fs and a maximum peak power of 0.67 kW. Upon amplification with an Erbium-doped fiber amplifier, the average output power reaches 24 dBm, albeit with a slight increase in pulse duration to 1 ps. The amplified soliton pulse is then coupled into a 100 m long highly nonlinear photonic crystal fiber (HN-PCF) with zero dispersion at 1550 nm, resulting in the realization of near infrared SCG. The supercontinuum spans from 1375 nm to at least 2000 nm, achieving spectral power exceeding −35 dBm. To our knowledge, this work represents the first demonstration of SCG by utilizing PAN-based femtosecond pulses to pump a nonlinear fiber.
Tesfaye Feyisa Hurrisa et al 2025 Phys. Scr.
Nonrenewable fossil fuels constitute the main source of energy for energy consumption worldwide. Therefore, new technologies are needed to capture energy from alternate sources before fossil fuel runs out. In this work, we designed a nanostructured grating for selective emitters made of tungsten/molybdenum ground film with a hafnium dioxide spacer that is used for thermophotovoltaic energy conversion. To achieve high spectral efficiency, several geometric parameters, including the grating height, dielectric thickness, and incident angle, were optimized, while all the remaining parameters remained fixed. The numerical simulation demonstrated that the mean emittance of the emitter reached 94% for the W-AlN-W structure in the wavelength range of 0.3 − 2.2 μm at normal incidence and 93% for the Mo-AlN-Mo structure in the wavelength range of 0.3 − 2.0 μm at normal incidence. Moreover, the nanostructured grating emitters with InGaAs band gaps of 0.55 eV and 0.62 eV at 1600 K attained 87% and 87.5% spectral efficiency, respectively. Furthermore, the designed metamaterial emitter was polarization independent and exhibited good emissivity over a wide range of incidence angles, from 0° to 75°. Surface plasmon polaritons, magnetic polaritons, and intrinsic metals show significant absorption at the cutoff wavelength. High mean emittance, polarization independence, easy fabrication, cost effectiveness, high spectral efficiency, and thermal stability are considered the most desirable elements of this work.
Eugene B Kolomeisky and Joseph P Straley 2025 Phys. Scr.
We compute the magnetic response of hollow semimetal cylinders and rings to the presence of an axial Aharonov-Bohm magnetic flux, in the absence of interactions. We predict nullification of the Aharonov-Bohm effect for a class of dispersion laws that includes "non-relativistic" dispersion and demonstrate that at zero flux the ground-state of a very short "armchair" graphene tube will exhibit a ferromagnetic broken symmetry. We also compute the diamagnetic response of bulk semimetals to the presence of a uniform magnetic field, specifically predicting that the susceptibility has a logarithmic dependence on the size of the sample.
Adrian Ankiewicz 2025 Phys. Scr.
We analyze rogue wave patterns for various orders of the nonlinear Schrödinger equation for large values of solution parameters. We use a combination of exact solutions, geometric constructions and polynomial approximations for analysis, and introduce a new way of viewing the formations of rogue waves, including the triangular ones, by showing that they all can be represented as occupying circular shells, some of which contain 'nuclei'.
Gabriel Nicolosi et al 2025 Phys. Scr.
This work considers the problem of approximating initial condition and time-dependent optimal control and trajectory surfaces using multivariable finite Fourier series. A modified Augmented Lagrangian algorithm for translating the optimal control problem into an unconstrained optimization one is proposed. A quadratic control problem in the context of Newtonian mechanics is solved to demonstrate the proposed algorithm and various computational results are presented. Use of automatic differentiation is explored to circumvent the elaborated gradient computation in the first-order optimization procedure. Furthermore, mean square error bounds are derived for the case of one and two-dimensional Fourier series approximations, suggesting a general bound for problems with state space of $n$ dimensions.
İmran Kanmaz et al 2025 Phys. Scr. 100 035945
In this study, CeO2 thin films were produced using the spin coting method, which is one of the sol–gel methods, in six different molarities. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns revealed the characteristic peaks of the films, while Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) confirmed their homogeneous structure. Then, radiation shielding parameters like linear absorption coefficient (LAC), mass absorption coefficient (MAC), tent value layer (TVL), mean free path (MFP), and half value layer (HVL) were thoroughly examined. The results showed that increasing molarity had a significant effect on the thickness values of thin films and the absorption parameters were found to improve with increasing molarity. Both LAC and MAC values decrease as the energy level increases, but the increase in CeO2 molarity leads to a strong increase on these coefficients. The HVL value was also found to be 0.42 cm at the lowest energy of 14.957 keV and to be around 10 cm at the greatest energy of 59.543 keV (0.05 M). When the radiation energy applied to the material was raised from 14.957 keV to 59.543 keV, it was found that the MFP values of 0.05 M CeO2 thin films grew gradually from 0.61 cm to 14.51 cm. High energy radiation of 59.543 keV and a low density (0.05 M) medium resulted in peak TVL values of 33.423 cm, allowing the radiation to pass through the material with minimal interaction.
Pavel Drozdov and Giorgio Gubbiotti 2025 Phys. Scr.
In this paper, we characterize all discrete-time systems in quasi-standard form admitting coalgebra symmetry with respect to the Lie–Poisson algebra h6. The outcome of this study is a family of systems depending on an arbitrary function of three variables, playing the rôle of the potential. Moreover, using a direct search approach, we classify discrete-time systems from this family that admit an additional invariant at most quadratic in the physical variables. We discuss the integrability properties of the obtained cases, their relationship with known systems, and their continuum limits.