Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering

In the dynamic landscape of semiconductor manufacturing, the demand for innovative and efficient techniques is ever-growing. Dicing is a singulation process where a machine known as a dicing saw or dicer uses a diamond blade or laser to separate dies from a wafer through a manual, semi-automated, or fully automated process. In diamond blade or mechanical dicing, the dicing saw utilizes a thin blade to cut through a wafer. This paper presents the design and implementation of an alignment teaching-assisted fully automated dicing process for the singulation of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices. A pseudo-MEMS device with potential alignment targets was designed and manufactured by conventional microfabrication techniques. Alignment teaching operation was optimized for the dicing saw by finding the most appropriate alignment targets, as alignment teaching is as a pre-requisite for realizing both auto-alignment and automated dicing processes. A systematic trial-and-error approach was employed to discover the most suitable alignment targets from a pool of twenty-three potential target patterns. A circle was identified as an excellent macro target, while the addition symbol, hash symbol, and rectangle-pair were determined to be the most appropriate micro targets. The developed versatile singulation process is capable of executing an alignment teaching assisted fully automated (i.e. a total of one-click to initiate and finalize) dicing for singulating MEMS device chips, irrespective of alignment target color, die size, or wafer material. Furthermore, we developed, and experimentally validated, a mathematical model to estimate the total process time for the automated dicing.

This paper focuses on the design and implementation of silicon slab waveguides (SSWs) based all-optical XOR and XNOR logic gates. Utilizing silicon's high refractive index at optical communication wavelengths (1.55 µm), these gates exhibit strong optical confinement and efficient propagation in SSWs. The proposed design is optimized for both transverse electric and transverse magnetic modes. By strategically introducing air holes at key intersections of the waveguide, phase variations are induced to achieve the desired output logic for XOR and XNOR logic operations. These gates demonstrate femtosecond-scale propagation delays, significantly outperforming traditional logic gate designs, with low propagation losses and compact design.

This paper introduces a low-cost, rapid, and simple method for fabricating 3D-printed microfluidic chips, inspired by LEGO® bricks, to accommodate modular microfluidic platforms. A fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printer was operated and modified to print a single 400 μm layer of thermoplastic material onto a polymethyl methacrylate substrate, resulting in a very smooth and transparent microchannel by minimizing the limitations of this additive manufacturing. Specific male/female chip-to-world and chip-to-chip connectors have been developed to implement the device's modularity. In addition, various post-processing procedures were considered because of the inherent surface roughness of the FFF method. Several microfluidic components were designed and fabricated, including T-shaped and cross-shaped microchannels, zig-zag pattern micromixers, and four oval-shaped parallel microchannels. The chips' validity was examined by injecting food dye into a group of modules to observe the chips' leakage and fluid circulation behavior. At last, a fluorescent test was implemented to observe the mixing efficiency of the micromixer chip. The proposed fabrication method, from materials' cost, accessibility, and commercialized perspectives, offers a high throughput process. In other words, it could be fabricated and implemented in most lab environments with limited facilities and budget without expensive equipment. All microfluidic chips in this work have been designed using a modular concept. This relatively new approach allows users to reconfigure connections and microfluidic components to obtain the desired system.

Mechanoluminescence (ML) is the emission of photons from materials in response to a mechanical stimulus, with a good correlation between ML intensity and stress amplitude. Depositing a ZnS: Cu layer on the monolithically integrated photodetector surface to construct a stress and light dual-mode sensor. The developed sensor achieves a high-stress sensitivity with a detection limit of 0.525 MPa, a response time under 10 ms, and a minimum resolution of 0.1 MPa. Furthermore, the product is straightforward to manufacture and lightweight. Additionally, the ZnS: Cu layer has light transmission which allows for dual-mode stress and light detection, making it ideal for deployment in large industrial machinery. This work not only proposes a novel dual-mode sensor but also provides a promising approach to extending photodetector utility and functionality by applying a film to the photodetector, opening pathways for versatile applications.

Electrode-integrated microfluidic chips play a pivotal role in applying electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) across various domains. This technology has significantly transformed biomedical research, facilitating progress in drug discovery, diagnostics, and cell analysis. The architecture of these chips integrated with electrodes critically influences the precision and dependability of EIS outcomes. This study developed diverse microfluidic chip designs, including circular, deltoid, and deltoid-like shapes, to explore microenvironmental dynamics on EIS assessments. Moreover, computational fluid dynamics was utilized to examine the flow properties within the proposed chip designs by investigating the relationship between pressure and velocities in the microenvironment. The study also assessed the effects of varying flow rates (1, 10, 100 µl) on EIS analysis and the simulation studies. Findings indicated that there were empty spaces in the circular design, which is commonly used, and it was not suitable for EIS experiments. Furthermore, it was noted that even with reduced altitude in the EIS measurement area, the environment remained conducive to more accurate measurements. A flow rate of 10 µl min⁻¹ was identified as optimal in this research, as it offered the best balance among charge transfer resistance (R_ct), capacitance (Q), and open circuit potential values, while also minimizing the sample volume which is very important for microfluidic chip design and applications. This study demonstrated a strong interaction between microfluidic chip designs for electrode integration and EIS outcomes. On the other hand, it has yielded a reliable, cost-effective, rapid, practical, reusable, and portable platform after choosing an appropriate architecture for the electrode housing.

Currently, micromachined ultrasonic transducers are classified as capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) and piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducers (PMUTs). CMUT present higher electromechanical coupling coefficients, high receiving sensitivity, and higher bandwidth, exhibiting superior performance compared to PMUT and their traditional counterparts. Micro-nano materials, with advantages such as high surface area, improved electronic performance, biocompatibility, and easy integration with miniaturization, are widely applied in various fields including electronics, energy, environment protection, and medicine. The combination of CMUT and micro-nano materials has become a hot research topic in the fields of medicine and biochemistry in recent years. Integrating CMUT with micro-nano materials plays an important role in biochemical testing, drug monitoring, and medical diagnosis, promoting the prediction of disease progression and timely implementation of effective measures. This work primarily discusses the integration of CMUT with micro-nano materials, emphasizing that the innovative application of these materials significantly enhances the performance, thereby advancing the development of related technologies.

Beam-type piezoelectric energy harvesters (PEHs), particularly those utilizing piezoelectric materials, have garnered considerable attention as efficient devices for converting ambient mechanical vibrations into electrical energy. This comprehensive review article thoroughly examines the mathematical models employed in beam-type PEHs, emphasizing their evolution and limitations. The study also delves into both theoretical and experimental analyses of design configurations, placing a special focus on the impact of geometries on energy harvesting efficiency. In conclusion, the paper explores recent advancements and improvements, along with potential avenues for future research, providing a concise overview tailored for professionals and scholars engaged in this specialized field.

Inspired by the advances in microfabrication of microelectromechanical systems (MEMSs), microphysiological systems (MPSs) capitalized on the fabrication techniques of MEMS technology and pivoted to biomedical applications with select biomaterials and design principles. With the new initiative to refute animal testing and develop valid and reliable alternatives, MPS platforms are in greater demand than ever. This paper will first present the major types of MPSs in the cardiovascular research space, and then review the core design principles of such systems to closely replicate the in vivo physiology. Fabrication methodologies of the platform, as well as technologies that enable patterning and functionalizing scaffolds, and the various sensing modalities that can interface with such MPS platforms, are reviewed and discussed. This review aims to provide a comprehensive picture of cardiac MPSs in which microfluidics play an important role in the design, fabrication, and sensing modalities, and prospects of how this platform can continue to drive further improvements in cardiovascular research and medicine.

The demand for rapid, high-quality, and controlled mixing at the microscale has led to the development of various types of micromixers. Micromixers are commonly categorised as active, or passive based on whether they utilise external energy to enhance mixing. Passive micromixers utilise a complex geometry to enhance the diffusion coefficient at lower Reynolds numbers and induce chaotic advection at higher Reynolds numbers for effectively mixing fluids without external energy. Active micromixers, on the other hand, achieve precise, fast, and controllable mixing by employing external energy sources such as pressure, electric, magnetic, or acoustic fields. Some active methods such as magnetic field-driven micromixers need fluids with specific properties. Others, such as acoustic field-driven micromixers apply to various types of fluids. Bubbles can be used as membranes or stirrers in microfluidic devices for both passive and active micromixers. They are easy to use, compatible with microfluidic systems, low cost, and effective. Improvements in manufacturing methods, notably, 3D printing have emerged as promising methods for the development of new micromixer designs. In this paper, a wide range of micromixer types is reviewed and the main mechanism for enhanced mixing is investigated. This study aims to guide researchers proposing innovative designs. Furthermore, it is shown that combining different methods can lead to the development of more effective micromixers, promising further advancements in microscale mixing technology.

The burgeoning internet of things and artificial intelligence technologies have prospered a variety of emerging applications. Human–machine interfaces (HMIs), for instance, enables users with intuitive, efficient, and friendly way to interact with machines, capable of instant information acquisition, processing, communication, and feedback, etc. These features require ultra-compact and high-performance transducers, and therefore self-powered sensors have become the key underlying technology for HMI applications. This review focuses on the piezoelectric, triboelectric, and hybrid self-powered sensors with particular attention to their microstructures and fabrication methods, showing that both traditional microfabrication and emerging fabrication methods like three-dimensional (3D) printing, electrospinning, and braiding have contributed to the planar, array, porous, fabric, and composite type self-powered sensors. Moreover, the integration method of piezoelectric and triboelectric sensor arrays is investigated. The crosstalk issue is highlighted, i.e. the signal interference between adjacent sensing units, and current solutions such as array design optimization, signal processing improvement, and material innovation to reduce crosstalk sensitivity have been reviewed through specific examples. Three categories of HMI applications have been outlined, including intelligent interaction, robotics, and human monitoring, with detailed explanations of how the self-powered sensors support these HMI applications. Through discussion of challenges and prospects, it is proposed that further coordinating the design and fabrication of micro devices with HMIs will potentially boost the intelligent application with even higher level of diversification, convenience, and interconnectivity.

Viscosity is a critical fluid property that significantly influences fluid behavior and performance across various systems. Most commercial viscometers require relatively large sample volumes (on the order of milliliters), which restricts their utility in scenarios where only limited sample volumes are available. For instance, human tear fluid - essential for developing effective treatment strategies - is scarce (typically on the order of microliters), especially in individuals living with dry eye disease. To address this limitation, we present a novel microfluidic viscometer platform capable of measuring the viscosity of ultra-small volumes (i.e. ~ 10 microlitres) of both Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. The working principle is based on the Hagen-Poiseuille equation, incorporating the Weissenberg-Rabinowitsch-Mooney correction for slit-flow, and employs an optically transparent microfluidic chip integrated with supporting devices including a syringe pump, manifold, camera, and differential pressure transducer. Preliminary validation was conducted using glycerol solutions, artificial tears, and tear samples from both dry and healthy eyes. This microfluidic viscometer holds promise for measuring the shear viscosity of small volumes of biofluid samples (e.g synovial fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, tear films) or pharmaceuticals (e.g. monoclonal antibodies, ophthalmic drug delivery products) by developing surface coating materials appropriate for specific samples.

Laser transmission welding is a technique for joining a transparent polymer to an opaque polymer. This paper presents the results of nanosecond pulsed laser (1064 nm) transmission welding of cyclic olefin copolymer (COC). COC has a wide range of applications in biological, biomedical, membrane, and semiconductor fields. Laser transmission welding has advantages over conventional adhesive and thermal-based methods of bonding. These include precision sealing and minimised heat affected zone, which makes this process favourable for bio-applications. The effect of laser processing parameters, such as the laser pulse energy and the laser scan speed, on the weld morphology as well as on the bonding strength was studied via cross-sectional optical microscopy and lap shear tensile tests. These studies provide novel insights into the welded region at the interface of the two materials and demonstrate the impact of laser parameters on the weld seam width and bond strength. Leak tests were performed on laser welded fluidic channels and no leakages were detected. Further, the analysis of lap-shear-joint tensile tests demonstrates that laser welding produces joining strengths similar to those of adhesive-bonded COC. The joining interface area for laser welding is in general smaller than that of adhesive bonding, which potentially can enable more design freedom and capacity for accommodating complex functionalities on a singular COC-based device.

In this paper, ball-burning and bonding tests were conducted using Ag-Au-Pd alloy wires with a diameter of φ0.025 mm, and the performance of free air ball (FAB) morphology and bonding strength under various bonding parameters was investigated. The results showed that when the Electronic Flame Off (EFO) current is 20mA, the FAB of Ag-Au-Pd bonding alloy wire appears small ellipsoid, whereas increasing the EFO current to 40mA resulted in a golf club-shaped FAB. Similarly, when the EFO time was 0.4ms, the FAB appears as a small spherical, but extending the EFO time to 1.2ms caused the FAB to enlarge and exhibit a golf club phenomenon. The addition of Pd element reduced the FAB heat affected zone length of Ag-Au-Pd alloy wire by 26.5% compared to Ag-Au wire. Insufficient ultrasonic power and bonding pressure lead to weak bonding at the bonded interface, thereby reducing the bonding strength, while excessive ultrasonic power and bonding pressure can cause short circuits and pad damage. The optimized bonding parameters for the Ag-Au-Pd alloy wire determined to be: an ultrasonic power of 65mW and a bonding pressure of 45g for the ball bond, and an ultrasonic power of 95mW and a bonding pressure is 75g for the wedge bond.

In the domain of micro-nano electronic printing technology, the integration of the operational characteristics of piezoelectric inkjet printing and electrohydrodynamic printing overcomes the limitations of single-mode printing. This integration facilitates the advancement and enhancement of hybrid printing technology, encompassing piezoelectric and electric forces. A study is conducted on jet printing utilizing a hybrid force as the driving power. The hybrid printing system is initially developed and assembled. The study focuses on the printing mechanism of piezoelectric deforming units and electrohydrodynamic generating units, leading to the development and integration of hybrid printing equipment. Secondly, three types of printing models are established using simulation software, including piezoelectric, electrohydrodynamic, and hybrid models. The jetting mechanism of the single force and hybrid force is described, and the feasibility of the process is assessed. The experiment is designed to assess the performance of hybrid printing in comparison to other single-force printing methods. The experimental results indicate that hybrid printing demonstrates superior precision and consistency compared to single-force printing. The average diameters of the printed droplet dots for piezoelectric-driven and composite-driven methods are 225.9 μm and 181.4 μm, respectively. Compared to piezoelectric inkjet printing, hybrid printing ensures uniform droplet formation and reduces satellite formation through electrohydrodynamic stabilization. Compared to electrohydrodynamic methods, hybrid printing improves deposition accuracy, refines jetting control, minimizes unintended spreading, and achieves higher resolution.

Viscosity is a critical fluid property that significantly influences fluid behavior and performance across various systems. Most commercial viscometers require relatively large sample volumes (on the order of milliliters), which restricts their utility in scenarios where only limited sample volumes are available. For instance, human tear fluid - essential for developing effective treatment strategies - is scarce (typically on the order of microliters), especially in individuals living with dry eye disease. To address this limitation, we present a novel microfluidic viscometer platform capable of measuring the viscosity of ultra-small volumes (i.e. ~ 10 microlitres) of both Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. The working principle is based on the Hagen-Poiseuille equation, incorporating the Weissenberg-Rabinowitsch-Mooney correction for slit-flow, and employs an optically transparent microfluidic chip integrated with supporting devices including a syringe pump, manifold, camera, and differential pressure transducer. Preliminary validation was conducted using glycerol solutions, artificial tears, and tear samples from both dry and healthy eyes. This microfluidic viscometer holds promise for measuring the shear viscosity of small volumes of biofluid samples (e.g synovial fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, tear films) or pharmaceuticals (e.g. monoclonal antibodies, ophthalmic drug delivery products) by developing surface coating materials appropriate for specific samples.

Laser transmission welding is a technique for joining a transparent polymer to an opaque polymer. This paper presents the results of nanosecond pulsed laser (1064 nm) transmission welding of cyclic olefin copolymer (COC). COC has a wide range of applications in biological, biomedical, membrane, and semiconductor fields. Laser transmission welding has advantages over conventional adhesive and thermal-based methods of bonding. These include precision sealing and minimised heat affected zone, which makes this process favourable for bio-applications. The effect of laser processing parameters, such as the laser pulse energy and the laser scan speed, on the weld morphology as well as on the bonding strength was studied via cross-sectional optical microscopy and lap shear tensile tests. These studies provide novel insights into the welded region at the interface of the two materials and demonstrate the impact of laser parameters on the weld seam width and bond strength. Leak tests were performed on laser welded fluidic channels and no leakages were detected. Further, the analysis of lap-shear-joint tensile tests demonstrates that laser welding produces joining strengths similar to those of adhesive-bonded COC. The joining interface area for laser welding is in general smaller than that of adhesive bonding, which potentially can enable more design freedom and capacity for accommodating complex functionalities on a singular COC-based device.

In the dynamic landscape of semiconductor manufacturing, the demand for innovative and efficient techniques is ever-growing. Dicing is a singulation process where a machine known as a dicing saw or dicer uses a diamond blade or laser to separate dies from a wafer through a manual, semi-automated, or fully automated process. In diamond blade or mechanical dicing, the dicing saw utilizes a thin blade to cut through a wafer. This paper presents the design and implementation of an alignment teaching-assisted fully automated dicing process for the singulation of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices. A pseudo-MEMS device with potential alignment targets was designed and manufactured by conventional microfabrication techniques. Alignment teaching operation was optimized for the dicing saw by finding the most appropriate alignment targets, as alignment teaching is as a pre-requisite for realizing both auto-alignment and automated dicing processes. A systematic trial-and-error approach was employed to discover the most suitable alignment targets from a pool of twenty-three potential target patterns. A circle was identified as an excellent macro target, while the addition symbol, hash symbol, and rectangle-pair were determined to be the most appropriate micro targets. The developed versatile singulation process is capable of executing an alignment teaching assisted fully automated (i.e. a total of one-click to initiate and finalize) dicing for singulating MEMS device chips, irrespective of alignment target color, die size, or wafer material. Furthermore, we developed, and experimentally validated, a mathematical model to estimate the total process time for the automated dicing.

In this paper, ball-burning and bonding tests were conducted using Ag-Au-Pd alloy wires with a diameter of φ0.025 mm, and the performance of free air ball (FAB) morphology and bonding strength under various bonding parameters was investigated. The results showed that when the Electronic Flame Off (EFO) current is 20mA, the FAB of Ag-Au-Pd bonding alloy wire appears small ellipsoid, whereas increasing the EFO current to 40mA resulted in a golf club-shaped FAB. Similarly, when the EFO time was 0.4ms, the FAB appears as a small spherical, but extending the EFO time to 1.2ms caused the FAB to enlarge and exhibit a golf club phenomenon. The addition of Pd element reduced the FAB heat affected zone length of Ag-Au-Pd alloy wire by 26.5% compared to Ag-Au wire. Insufficient ultrasonic power and bonding pressure lead to weak bonding at the bonded interface, thereby reducing the bonding strength, while excessive ultrasonic power and bonding pressure can cause short circuits and pad damage. The optimized bonding parameters for the Ag-Au-Pd alloy wire determined to be: an ultrasonic power of 65mW and a bonding pressure of 45g for the ball bond, and an ultrasonic power of 95mW and a bonding pressure is 75g for the wedge bond.

In the domain of micro-nano electronic printing technology, the integration of the operational characteristics of piezoelectric inkjet printing and electrohydrodynamic printing overcomes the limitations of single-mode printing. This integration facilitates the advancement and enhancement of hybrid printing technology, encompassing piezoelectric and electric forces. A study is conducted on jet printing utilizing a hybrid force as the driving power. The hybrid printing system is initially developed and assembled. The study focuses on the printing mechanism of piezoelectric deforming units and electrohydrodynamic generating units, leading to the development and integration of hybrid printing equipment. Secondly, three types of printing models are established using simulation software, including piezoelectric, electrohydrodynamic, and hybrid models. The jetting mechanism of the single force and hybrid force is described, and the feasibility of the process is assessed. The experiment is designed to assess the performance of hybrid printing in comparison to other single-force printing methods. The experimental results indicate that hybrid printing demonstrates superior precision and consistency compared to single-force printing. The average diameters of the printed droplet dots for piezoelectric-driven and composite-driven methods are 225.9 μm and 181.4 μm, respectively. Compared to piezoelectric inkjet printing, hybrid printing ensures uniform droplet formation and reduces satellite formation through electrohydrodynamic stabilization. Compared to electrohydrodynamic methods, hybrid printing improves deposition accuracy, refines jetting control, minimizes unintended spreading, and achieves higher resolution.

Electrode-integrated microfluidic chips play a pivotal role in applying electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) across various domains. This technology has significantly transformed biomedical research, facilitating progress in drug discovery, diagnostics, and cell analysis. The architecture of these chips integrated with electrodes critically influences the precision and dependability of EIS outcomes. This study developed diverse microfluidic chip designs, including circular, deltoid, and deltoid-like shapes, to explore microenvironmental dynamics on EIS assessments. Moreover, computational fluid dynamics was utilized to examine the flow properties within the proposed chip designs by investigating the relationship between pressure and velocities in the microenvironment. The study also assessed the effects of varying flow rates (1, 10, 100 µl) on EIS analysis and the simulation studies. Findings indicated that there were empty spaces in the circular design, which is commonly used, and it was not suitable for EIS experiments. Furthermore, it was noted that even with reduced altitude in the EIS measurement area, the environment remained conducive to more accurate measurements. A flow rate of 10 µl min⁻¹ was identified as optimal in this research, as it offered the best balance among charge transfer resistance (R_ct), capacitance (Q), and open circuit potential values, while also minimizing the sample volume which is very important for microfluidic chip design and applications. This study demonstrated a strong interaction between microfluidic chip designs for electrode integration and EIS outcomes. On the other hand, it has yielded a reliable, cost-effective, rapid, practical, reusable, and portable platform after choosing an appropriate architecture for the electrode housing.

The need for materials with low density and high strength has drawn a lot of interest from researchers and industry in the last few years. Aluminum 6061 (Al6061) is one of these materials that has the required qualities. Powder-mixed electric discharge machining has become a practical choice for cutting such materials because of its versatile machining capabilities. However, this technique's excessive energy usage and poor cutting efficiency have drawn criticism. Furthermore, there are serious health and environmental risks associated with the typical dielectric (kerosene) used in EDM. Deionized water, a replacement to kerosene, has been used in this work to address the aforementioned problems, improving resource reusability and lowering the dielectric cost. Here, deionized water further makes the operation sustainable and protects the environment from harmful emissions produced during the machining process. Additionally, alumina (Al₂O₃) nano-powder has been mixed in dielectric and used to improve the machining responsiveness. Response surface methodology was used to carry out the investigation. The purpose of this study was to use microscopic analysis to examine the effects on the electrode wear rate (EWR) and accuracy index (AI). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) analyses for both responses revealed that all four parameters are highly significant, with p-values nearly zero (<0.05). Additionally, the coefficient of determination (R²) values for EWR (0.9611) and AI (0.9285) indicate that the proposed models are reliable. The parametric optimization by grey relational analysis (GRA) approach highlighted that the magnitude for EWR and AI is improved by 50.85% and 2.67%, respectively, when optimal condition (I_P: 5 A, S_V: 2 V, S_T: 3 µs, and C_P:1.5 g/100 ml) is set during EDM of Al6061. The proposed EDM model yielded 48.29% and 5.11% better outcomes than the conventional EDM model in terms of EWR and AI, respectively.

Beam-type piezoelectric energy harvesters (PEHs), particularly those utilizing piezoelectric materials, have garnered considerable attention as efficient devices for converting ambient mechanical vibrations into electrical energy. This comprehensive review article thoroughly examines the mathematical models employed in beam-type PEHs, emphasizing their evolution and limitations. The study also delves into both theoretical and experimental analyses of design configurations, placing a special focus on the impact of geometries on energy harvesting efficiency. In conclusion, the paper explores recent advancements and improvements, along with potential avenues for future research, providing a concise overview tailored for professionals and scholars engaged in this specialized field.

Strain sensors have been developed in various fields by converting mechanical deformation into electrical signals. Surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices are beneficial for strain sensing due to their simplicity of fabrication and wireless operation capabilities. In this study, we investigate SAW strain sensors operating at 1.25 $\mathrm{GHz}$. The fabricated SAW resonators using standard photolithography technology are characterized with a custom-made cantilever setup capable of applying defined strain values up to approximately −4000 µε to 4000 µε. From these measurements, a high responsivity even up to this high strain values is demonstrated. We also explore the impact of geometric design parameters on strain-sensing performance. We vary the length of the SAW resonator and observe that the longer the SAW resonator, the more responsive the device gets to strain changes. When the distance between the two reflectors confining the SAW is 2207 $\mu\mathrm{m}$, the responsivity to strain is 114.99 $\mathrm{Hz}\,\mu\epsilon^{-1}$. In summary, this study investigates the feasibility of GHz SAW resonators as high-strain sensors on non-flexible substrates with a custom-built experimental setup, to evaluate their potential for future applications in extreme mechanical environments.

Lift-off process is an alternative to deposition, lithography, and etching of materials. Lift-off is a simple and economical process because it does not require subsequent wet or dry etching. Lifting-off nanometer thick films is a well-developed and repeatable process. However, lifting-off a few micrometer thick films may be challenging. Previously, different techniques were proposed to lift-off micrometer thick films. Herein, a novel method for lifting-off high thickness materials is proposed using a multi-layer AZ 5214E photoresist. The novel method was successful in lifting-off 4 µm thick copper while the copper could even be deposited up to 6 µm with tri-layer AZ 5214E. With four layers of AZ 5214E, the photoresist thickness can be even thicker than 9 µm. As detailed in the study, the photoresist layer thickness can be adjusted by varying the number of layers. This enables the selection of the appropriate number of layers to achieve the desired material thickness. To show the merits of the proposed method, the method is compared to the bi-layer method with AZ 4562 photoresist which is used for lifting-off high thickness materials. In addition to lifting-off thick materials, the proposed method is faster compared to lifting-off using bi-layer AZ 4562. Despite the ability to lift-off thick films, both methods could suffer from lift-off flags if the deposition process is not anisotropic. Solutions to remove the lift-off flags, and reduce the undercut width are demonstrated.